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Foreign territories in China

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This section is an excerpt from Foreign imperialism in China § Concessions and leased territories.[edit]

The concessions were enclaves located in Chinese cities that were leased to, governed, and occupied foreign powers. In these concessions, foreigners were given the right to freely inhabit, trade, travel, and perform missionary evangelization. Some of these territories were directly leased by foreign powers, effectively removing them from the control of local governments and serving as de facto colonies.[1] A 1937 inventory of all the concessions along with a survey of their status done by W. C. Johnstone shows that, aside from the two international settlements at Shanghai and Xiamen, there were a total of 23 foreign concessions to 8 nations in 10 Chinese cities. In addition to the 23 formally established concessions, Britain, Japan, and the United States were granted rights to concessions in several additional treaty ports, but these rights were never exercised.[2]

In addition, territories were fully administered as colonies and had their sovereignty transferred to a foreign power in perpetuity. These include Portuguese Macau, and the areas of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon in British Hong Kong.[3]

List

[edit]
Country City Type Year established Year disestablished Ref
International Beijing Leased territory 1861 1945
Shanghai Concession 1863 1943[a]
Xiamen Concession 1903 1945
Austria-Hungary
 Tianjin Concession 1902 1917
Belgium
 Tianjin Concession 1902 1931 [4]
France
 Shanghai Concession 1849 1946
Liwan[b] Concession 1859 1946
Tianjin Concession 1861 1946
Hankou[c] Concession 1896 1946
Kunming Railway 1904 1940
Zhanjiang Leased territory 1911 1946
Germany
 Hankou[c] Concession 1895 1917
Tianjin Concession 1895 1917
Qingdao Leased territory 1897 1922[d]
Italy
 Tianjin Concession 1901 1947 [5]
Japan
 Chongqing Concession 1897 1937 [6]
Suzhou Concession 1897 1943 [7]
Hangzhou Concession 1897 1943 [7]
Shashi[e] Concession 1898 1943 [7]
Hankou[c] Concession 1898 1945
Tianjin Concession 1898 1945
Xiamen Concession 1898 1945
Dalian Railway 1905 1937
Dalian Leased territory 1905 1945
Lüshunkou[f] Leased territory 1905 1945
Portugal
 Macau Colony 1849[g] 1999
Russia

Soviet Union
 Hankou[c] Concession 1896 1924 [8]
Harbin Railway 1896 1920
Dalian Leased territory 1898 1905 [9]
Lüshunkou[f] Leased territory 1898 1905 [10]
Tianjin Concession 1900 1924
Harbin Railway 1929 1934 [11][12]
Harbin Railway 1945 1952
Lüshunkou[f] Leased territory 1945 1955 [13]
United Kingdom
 Hong Kong Colony[h] 1842 1997
Hong Kong Colony[h] 1860 1997
Hong Kong Leased territory[h] 1898 1997
Shanghai Concession 1846 1863
Xiamen Concession 1852 1930
Liwan[b] Concession 1859 1945
Tianjin Concession 1860 1945
Hankou[c] Concession 1861 1927
Jiujiang Concession 1861 1929
Zhenjiang Concession 1861 1929
Weihai Leased territory 1898 1930
United States
 Shanghai Concession 1848 1863
Tianjin Concession 1860 1902

Proposed

[edit]

Additionally, there were more concessions planned but never completed.[citation needed]

Country City Type Ref
United Kingdom
 Yingkou Concession
Nanjing Concession
Yichang Concession
Wuhu Concession
Wenzhou Concession
Japan
 Fuzhou Concession
Xiamen Concession
Yingkou Concession
France
 Yantai Concession
Nanjing Concession
United States
 Wenzhou Concession
Italy
 Sanmen[i] Concession [14]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ Peter Hibbard, The Bund Shanghai: China Faces West (Odyssey Illustrated Guides, 2007)
  2. ↑ William C. Johnstone (1937), p. 943–944.
  3. ↑ Chan, Ming K (August 2003). "Different Roads to Home: the retrocession of Hong Kong and Macau to Chinese sovereignty". Journal of Contemporary China. 12 (36). Taylor&Francis: 493–518. doi:10.1080/10670560305473. Retrieved August 3, 2026.
  4. ↑ Anne-Marie Brady; Douglas Brown (2013). Foreigners and Foreign Institutions in Republican China. Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-415-52865-8.
  5. ↑ Marinelli, Maurizio (2010-09-01). "The genesis of the Italian concession in Tianjin: a combination of wishful thinking and realpolitik". Journal of Modern Italian Studies. 15 (4): 536–556. doi:10.1080/1354571X.2010.501975. ISSN 1354-571X. S2CID 144357230.
  6. ↑ "Chongqing – History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  7. 1 2 3 Rethinking the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5. Vol. 2, The Nichinan papers. Chiharu Inaba, J. W. M. Chapman. Folkestone, UK: Global Oriental. 2007. p. 187. ISBN 978-90-04-21332-6. OCLC 755068887. After the [First] Sino-Japanese War, Japan had won jurisdiction over concessions in ports such as Tianjin, Mukden, Hankou, Hangzhou, Suzhou, Shashi, and Chongqing. [...] Those at Tianjin and Hankou were seen by the Japanese Government as 'developed' concessions, while those at Suzhou, Hangzhou, and Chongqing were called 'undeveloped'.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  8. ↑ Crawford, Alan (2018). "Imagining the Russian Concession in Hankou". The Historical Journal. 61 (4): 969–989. doi:10.1017/S0018246X17000528. ISSN 0018-246X. S2CID 159946531.
  9. ↑ "CHINA'S GRANTS TO RUSSIA; Leases of Port Arthur and Talien-wan and the Railway Concession Signed at Pekin. CONTROL TO BE GIVEN TO-DAY China to Retain Sovereign Rights, but Russia to Take the Forts and Collect the Customs – A New Treaty Port". The New York Times. 1898-03-28. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  10. ↑ "CHINA'S GRANTS TO RUSSIA; Leases of Port Arthur and Talien-wan and the Railway Concession Signed at Pekin. CONTROL TO BE GIVEN TO-DAY China to Retain Sovereign Rights, but Russia to Take the Forts and Collect the Customs – A New Treaty Port". The New York Times. 1898-03-28. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-05-02.
  11. ↑ Walker, Michael M. (2017). The 1929 Sino-Soviet war : the war nobody knew. Lawrence, Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2375-4. OCLC 966274204.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  12. ↑ Elleman, Bruce A. (1994). "The Soviet Union's Secret Diplomacy Concerning the Chinese Eastern Railway, 1924–1925". The Journal of Asian Studies. 53 (2): 459–486. doi:10.2307/2059842. ISSN 0021-9118. JSTOR 2059842. S2CID 162586404.
  13. ↑ Hess, Christian (2018-01-01). "Sino-Soviet City: Dalian between Socialist Worlds, 1945–1955". Journal of Urban History. 44 (1): 9–25. doi:10.1177/0096144217710234. ISSN 0096-1442. S2CID 149414746.
  14. ↑ San Men bay and the start of Boxer rebellion
  1. ↑ Occupied by Japan during World War II in 1941.
  2. 1 2 Merged into Guangzhou in 1921.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Merged into Wuhan in 1926.
  4. ↑ Occupied by Japan during World War I in 1914.
  5. ↑ Merged into Jingzhou in 1994.
  6. 1 2 3 Merged into Dalian in 1950.
  7. ↑ Portugal had established a permanent presence in Macau since 1557 but only began administering the territory as a colony after the Passaleão incident in 1849.
  8. 1 2 3 Area of British Hong Kong.
  9. ↑ Merged into Taizhou in 1940.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Panikkar, K. M. (1953) Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, London: G. Allen and Unwin.
  • Nield, Robert (2010). The China Coast: Trade and the First Treaty Ports. Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Company. ISBN 9789620429873.
[edit]
  • Treaty ports and extraterritoriality in 1920s China[link removed]
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