Becoming Kleopatra: Ptolemaic Royal Marriage, Incest, and the Path to Female Rule

References (318)

1. ; Koenen, "The Ptolemaic king as a religious figure," 109; Gutzwiller, "Callimachus' Lock of Berenice," 369-371, n. 33, 384; Nachtergael, "La chevelure d'Isis," 596, 602, 603.
2. Gutzwiller, "Callimachus' Lock of Berenice," 362; Pantos, "Bérénice II Démèter," 350-351.
3. Koenen, "The Ptolemaic king as a religious figure," 62, 97.
4. Gutzwiller, "Callimachus' Lock of Berenice: Fantasy, Romance, and Propaganda," 368; Llewellyn-Jones and Winder, "A Key to Berenike's Lock? The Hathoric Model of Queenship in Early Ptolemaic Egypt," 255;
5. Roy, "The Masculinity of the Hellenistic King," 119. Gutzwiller proposes that the concept of a "young" bride
6. Wong, "Cleopatra I, The First Female Ptolemaic Regent: Her Predecessors, Policies, and Precedents," 54.
7. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 143; Wong, "Cleopatra I, The First Female Ptolemaic Regent: Her Predecessors, Policies, and Precedents," 47
8. As mentioned at note 106, above, Ptolemy VI was incorporated into the Greek branch of the ruler cult in year three of his reign with his mother. He is mentioned as Philometor in the titles of the Web priests in Demotic papyri dating from year five (176/5
9. BCE, P. BM EA 10230). See also, Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 143, n. 83.
10. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 143; Bielman-Sánchez, "Comment identifier des appuis discrets? L'entourage des reines Cléopâtre I et Cléopâtre II (180-115 av. J.-C.)," 409.
11. Bennett, PD s.v. "Cleopatra II." See also, at note 30, above, and the discussion on the order of birth for Kleopatra I's children. Some historians claim Kleopatra II was the oldest, but based on OGIS 98, I argue that Ptolemy VI was born first and Kleopatra second.
12. Rome (Diod. Sic. 31.18.2) in 164 BCE, allowing Ptolemy VIII to become the sole pharaoh for a short period. After leaving Rome, Ptolemy VI went to Cyprus, where he was, perhaps, joined by his sister-wife, until they were recalled to Alexandria by the Alexandrian people in 163 BCE because of Ptolemy VIII's despotic behavior (Polyb. 31.18.14; Diod. Sic.
13. 17c). 131 Fraser observes that this is an important point in Ptolemaic history because the populace of Alexandria now realized they could act as both "king-maker and king-breaker," a power they would exercise against several Ptolemaic monarchs, both male and female, from this point until the end of the dynasty. 132 After being recalled, Ptolemy VIII became the king of Kyrene (Polyb. 31.10.5), and Ptolemy VI and Kleopatra II ruled Egypt together as co-rulers for the next eighteen years, until Ptolemy VI's death in 145 BCE. The dating protocols make it clear that this was a period of joint rule as they all begin with some form of "the Pharaohs/During the rule of Ptolemy and Kleopatra, his sister, the Mother-loving Gods…" (see Appendix C). 133
14. Kleopatra II took advantage of the precedent set by her mother, as the use of the genitive plural (βασιλευόντων) was retained, and Kleopatra was listed by name after her brother- husband as participating in governance. 134 This is a significant advance in queenly prerogatives and power because Kleopatra II was the first Ptolemaic queen to be included in the first part of the dating protocol by name and as a co-ruler to her spouse, and her
15. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 183; Bennett, PD s.v. "Cleopatra II." Hölbl firmly states that Kleopatra joined Ptolemy in Cyprus. Bennett, however, points out that no classical source says she left Alexandria, but her absence is inferred from the dating formulae of Ptolemy VIII in 163, such as P.Dem. Munich 4, in which only he is listed.
16. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 120.
17. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 184; Hazzard, Imagination of a Monarchy, 127-128; Bielman- Sánchez and Lenzo, "Deux femmes de pouvoir chez les Lagides-Cléopâtre I et Cléopâtre II (IIe siècle av. J.- C.)," 162.
18. On the precedent set by Kleopatra I, see pg. 258, above. See also pgs. 290-292, below, where the dating protocols of Kleopatra II are analyzed in greater detail.
19. fled Alexandria, probably in 128/127 BCE, she also took part of the treasury with her. Justin hints that this was an unjustified action (39.1.4), but a portion of the treasury would have been earned by the queen through the taxes on the land she owned and the grain she transported on her ships. 263
20. Once Kleopatra reached the Seleukid court and the hospitality of her daughter
21. Kleopatra Thea, she was still in an uncertain position because Demetrios was soon after defeated by rival forces of his own, led by Alexander II Zabinas, who was supported by Ptolemy VIII. Demetrios was then murdered by 126 BCE (Just. Epit. 39.1.4-8; Joseph. AJ 13.267-268). 264
22. Bielman-Sánchez suggests that in the aftermath of Demetrios' death, Kleopatra II and Kleopatra Thea developed a strategy by which they planned to place Kleopatra Thea's younger son on the Seleukid throne, reinstate Kleopatra II on the Egyptian throne, and institute rapprochement between the Seleukid and Ptolemaic kingdoms. 265 Their plan must have worked because by 125/124 BCE Kleopatra was reinstated in Egypt. By 124/123
23. BCE Ptolemy reversed his Syrian policy by withdrawing support from Alexander Zabinas, and, instead, he sanctioned Kleopatra Thea's chosen son, Antiochos VIII Grypos, by marrying his daughter, Tryphaina, to him (Just. Epit. 39.2.3). 266 Chapter 10 will resume with Kleopatra II and the reconstituted joint reign between her, Ptolemy VIII, and Kleopatra III. The focus of that chapter, however, will be on 263 See at note 179, above. See also, Bielman-Sánchez, "Stéréotypes et réalités du pouvoir politique féminin: la guerre civile en Egypte entre 132 et 124 av. J.-C.," 101.
24. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 200.
25. Bielman-Sánchez, "Comment identifier des appuis discrets? L'entourage des reines Cléopâtre I et Cléopâtre II (180-115 av. J.-C.)," 417; Bielman-Sánchez and Lenzo, "Deux femmes de pouvoir chez les Lagides- Cléopâtre I et Cléopâtre II (IIe siècle av. J.-C.)," 171; Bielman-Sánchez, "Stéréotypes et réalités du pouvoir politique féminin: la guerre civile en Egypte entre 132 et 124 av. J.-C.," 104-105, n. 86.
26. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 201; Adrian G. Dumitru, "Kleopatra Selene -A Look at the Moon and Her Bright Side," in Seleukid Royal Women: Creation, Representation and Distortion of Hellenistic Queenship in the Seleukid Empire, Altay Coşkun and Alex McAuley, eds. (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016), 255.
27. The title is first attested to in 130 BCE in P. Dem. Leiden 273a. See also, P. Dem. Eheverträge 8D and Z; P. Dem. Eheverträge 37; P. Dem. Cairo II.30609. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 199, n. 96, 286;
28. Bennett, PD s.v. "Cleopatra III"; Minas-Nerpel, "Cleopatra II and III: The queens of Ptolemy VI and VIII as guarantors of kingship and rivals for power," 67.
29. The last part of the dating protocol would read: the hieropolos of Isis, the great one, mother of the gods, the athlophoros of Berenike Euergetis, the kanephoros of Arsinoë Philadelphos, and the hiereia of Arsinoë Philopator. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 199.
30. Fraser, for example, notes that the hieropolos "appears only spasmodically" during the remainder of Ptolemy VIII's reign, but after his death, it was regularly included in the dating protocols by Kleopatra III. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 221. Euergetis and Philometor Dikaiosyne Nikephoros," P.Koeln 2.81). 345 The same year, his son, Demetrios served as Kleopatra's hieropolos (ἱεροῦ πώλου Ἴ̣ σ̣ ι̣ δ̣ ος μητρὸς θεῶν μεγάλης Δημητρίου τοῦ Θ̣ ε̣ οδώρου, "Demetrios, son of Theodoros, the hieropolos of Isis, the great one, mother of the gods," P.Koeln 2.81), and Olympias, who was Seleukos' daughter, Theodoros' sister, and Demetrios' aunt, served as the priestess of Arsinoë Philopator (ἱερείας Ἀρσινόης Φιλοπάτορος Ὀλ̣ υμπ̣ ι̣ άδος τῆς Σ̣ ε̣ λ̣ ε̣ ύ̣ κ̣ ου, "Olympias, daughter of Seleukos, priestess of Arsinoë Philopator," P.Koeln 2.81) This was the same year Kleopatra took the position of priest of Alexander for herself, so it was important that she have her own courtiers in the subordinate priestly positions in order to support her holding of a traditionally male priesthood. 346 Kleopatra may have even shared some philoi with her sons. The successor of
31. Theodoros, Helenos, son of Apollonios, was the strategos of Cyprus in 117 BCE, and when Ptolemy IX was appointed as the new strategos, prior to the death of his father (Paus. 1.9.1; OGIS 143), Helenos became the tropeus ("caretaker," or "tutor"). 347 As the second-in- command to her eldest son, Helenos was a connection Kleopatra would have cultivated in order to oversee Ptolemy IX's actions in Cyprus. Helenos was then reappointed as strategos for the period of 116-106 BCE, including serving under Ptolemy X while he was King of Cyprus (114/113-107; see Appendix A). 348 Here again, he would have been a good contact for Kleopatra to use for regular information about her younger son. Helenos also served as 345 On Seleukos and Theodoros, see pgs. 288-289 and notes 178, 281, above 346 On Kleopatra III as the Priest of Alexander, see note 336, above.
32. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 205; Bennett, PD s.v. "Ptolemy IX." Hölbl indicates that Helenos acted as the second in command, the "caretaker," to Ptolemy IX, but Bennett outlines the arguments for whether the statue bases that provide Helenos that title indicate he was the "tutor" to Ptolemy IX or X. Bennett also overviews the debate concerning whether Helenos succeeded Theodoros as strategos or if Ptolemy IX succeeded Theodoros and Helenos became strategos only in 116.
33. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 205.
34. Berenike's father, was reinstated as pharaoh (Porph. in Eus. Chron. 1.165-166, ed. Schoene;
35. BCE. This seven-year period, however, is the most obscure period of Berenike's life. She perhaps remained with her husband in exile, until his death in 88/87
36. BCE, after which time she returned to Alexandria; although, the date of her return is unconfirmed. 410 She must have returned prior to her father's death in 81 BCE, since she ultimately succeeded him on the throne. She most likely returned to Egypt almost immediately following her husband's death because she had no place else to go. Unlike Kleopatra II, who had been able to flee to her daughter at the Seleukid court during her exile, Kleopatra Berenike III had no utilizable connections to other Hellenistic courts, since her only Ptolemaic relatives outside of Egypt were not in positions to help her.
37. Kleopatra Selene I, Berenike's mother/aunt, was in a similarly tenuous position in Syria, having just lost her third husband (sometime between 92-88 BCE). 411 Berenike also had two, perhaps three, half-brothers, Ptolemy XI, XII, and Ptolemy of Cyprus (see Appendix B), but they had been sent to Kos in 103 BCE by Kleopatra III (Joseph. AJ 13.348-351; App. Civ.
38. Mithridates VI of Pontus, and they were kept at his court afterwards (App. Civ. 1.102; App.
39. Bennett, PD s.v. "Berenice III." That Kleopatra Berenike joined Ptolemy X in his exile might be taken from Porphyry, preserved in Eusebius, who wrote that he took "refuge with his wife and daughter" (Porph. in Eus. Chron. 1.165, ed. Schoene). See also, Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 211.
40. Dumitru, "Kleopatra Selene -A Look at the Moon and Her Bright Side," 265-266. Hölbl argues that Ptolemy X fled to Syria after his expulsion from Alexandria to raise an army to bring against his brother, a task which ultimately failed and led to Ptolemy X's death. Rather than going to his sister, Kleopatra Selene I, for help, Ptolemy X had to ask the Romans for money and aid. This is another indication that she may not have been in a position to aid her Ptolemaic relatives at this time. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 211. See also, chapter 12.2 on Kleopatra Selene I.
41. On the war between Kleopatra III and Ptolemy IX that caused Kleopatra to send her grandchildren away, see pgs. 342-343, above. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 209.
42. Seleukos, however, died soon after their marriage; Dio Cassius and Strabo specify that he was murdered on the orders of Berenike for being coarse and generally disliked (Strab. 17.1.11; Dio Cass. 39.57.1). Bennett, citing Porphyry (Porph. in Eus. Chron. 1.261, ed. Schoene), posits that he may have died naturally shortly after their marriage, and he argues that the sources describing his murder may be repeating subsequent anti-Berenikean propaganda. 509 Whatever his fate, Seleukos was not Berenike's husband for long, and she married again in 56 BCE to Archelaos. Strabo states that he claimed to be the son of Mithridates Eupator (17.1.11), but he was actually the son of a Pontic nobleman, also named Archelaos. Archelaos the son had served as a general of Mithridates, but he defected to Rome and was later appointed as High Priest of Ma/Bellona at Komana by Pompey (Strab. 12.3.34;
43. App. Mith. 9.64, 17.114; Plut. Vit. Sull. 22.3-5, 23.2). Berenike and Archelaos were married for at least six months (Strab. 12.3.34) from 56-55 BCE, but otherwise little is known about their marriage. It was previously argued that Archelaos co-ruled with Berenike because of papyri which include the statement "year two, which is also year one" (year 2 = year 1), but Bennett has reassigned those papyri to the rule of Kleopatra Berenike III. 510 Instead, he has attributed a series of papyri and ostraca to Berenike IV, which demonstrate that the administration of the kingdom continued under the queen, with no reference to her husbands. 511 These papyri are all general administrative papyri from her reign, which do not include dating protocols, so it is unclear if the dating protocols changed to reflect her marriage or if they continued to list only her as queen.
44. Bennett, s.v. PD "Berenice IV."
45. Chris Bennett and Mark Depauw, "The Reign of Berenike IV (Summer 58-Spring 55 BC)," Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik 160 (2007), 211, n. 1. See note 421, above. For the papyri being credited to Berenike IV, see Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 227; Hazzard, Imagination of a Monarchy, 147, n. 224. 511 Bennett and Depauw, "The Reign of Berenike IV (Summer 58-Spring 55 BC)," 213. IX's basilissa-consort, but she did not co-rule with him since the position of dominant co- ruler was exercised by Kleopatra III. Kleopatra Selene's position is demonstrated by a stele from Elephantine (OGIS 168), which describes the dedication of a stele for Ptolemy IX, Kleopatra III, and Kleopatra "the sister" (βασιλίσσης Κλεοπάτρας τῆς ἀδελφῆς, i.e.
46. Kleopatra Selene) in the sanctuary of Khnum. The stele itself was issued by Kleopatra III and Ptolemy IX, as sovereigns, with Kleopatra Selene included only as part of the dedication as Ptolemy IX's wife and sister. 531 As basilissa-consort, Kleopatra Selene bore one child to her brother-husband shortly after their marriage, Berenike III. 532
47. Kleopatra Selene and Ptolemy IX were married for over eight years, until she was brother, Ptolemy X, when he was promoted to Kleopatra III's junior co-ruler. 533 Similarly to her first marriage, Kleopatra Selene did not co-rule with her second husband, since the throne was held by mother and son. Kleopatra Selene again served as basilissa-consort, and she bore her second brother a child, Ptolemy XI, during the period of 106-104 BCE. 534 Very little is known about Kleopatra Selene's life during the period she served as consecutive basilissa-consort to her brothers. She is cited in only one other inscription (SEG 9.5), and she is not included in any papyri. 535 Other than the brief mentions of her marriages and divorces, she is left out of the literary sources as well.
48. Bennett notes that the identification of Kleopatra "the sister" in this stele is somewhat contested, but he argues solidly for an identification of Kleopatra Selene. Bennett, PD s.v. "Cleopatra Selene." Even if the sister is Kleopatra IV, it still demonstrates that Kleopatra III did not permit either daughter to hold political power while she co-ruled with her sons. See also, SEG IX.5. 532 See note 394, above.
49. Bennett, PD s.v. "Cleopatra Selene"; Dumitru, "Kleopatra Selene -A Look at the Moon and Her Bright Side," 256-257.
50. Bennett, PD s.v. "Cleopatra Selene," "Ptolemy XI." See also, note 449, above. 535 On the inscription, see pg. 338, above. Similarly to her predecessors, Kleopatra was referenced in the dating protocols utilized during the various periods of her rule, and they also shed light on her induction into the dynastic cult and the various epithets she adopted. Kleopatra ascended to the throne at the death of her father in 51 BCE (iBucheum 13; Porph. in Eus. Chron. 1.167-168, ed. Schoene;
51. Strab. 17.1.11), and thereafter took on the epithet Thea Philopator (see Appendix D), in honor of him. 565 She may have been appointed as Ptolemy XII's co-ruler during the last year of his reign, from 52-51 BCE, in the same pattern as Kleopatra Berenike III and Ptolemy IX, so the transition from father to female-heir was a smooth one, at first. 566 Although Kleopatra and Ptolemy XIII ostensibly inherited the throne together, as a ruling pair, the documents of the year 51 BCE list only Kleopatra's name, and the dating protocol makes use of the feminized form of the verb "to reign" (βασιλευούσ̣ ης; see Appendix C), demonstrating that she was the dominant ruling figure (iBucheum 13; iGFayum 205; PSI 10.1098). Her brother, with the help of his philoi, contested her rule in 50/49 BCE, and she was expelled for a time in 48 BCE (Caes. BCiv. 3.103). 567
52. In 47 BCE, Kleopatra was placed back on the throne with her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, by Caesar after the events of the Alexandrian War (Strab. 17.1.11; Porph. in Eus. Chron. 1.167-169, ed. Schoene; Ps.-Caes. BAlex. 33.1-2; Dio Cass. 35-44; Suet. Jul.
53. tradition, they likely married at this time (Dio Cass. 42.44) and were inducted into the dynastic cult as the Theoi Philopatores kai Philadelphoi (Appendix D). From 47 BCE until her brother-husband's death in 44 BCE, 565
54. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 231; Bennett, PD s.v. "Cleopatra VII."
55. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 231; contra Bennett, PD s.v. "Ptolemy XII."
56. Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, 231; Bennett, PD s.v. "Cleopatra VII," "Arsinoe IV." According to Hölbl, Ptolemy gaining control of Egypt for a time might be evidenced by BGU 8.1730, which is a prostagma issued by the "king and queen." I have previously argued, however, that it should be attributed to Ptolemy XII and Kleopatra V, rather than Ptolemy XIII and Arsinoë IV, see note 476, above. 568 On the events of the war, including Ptolemy XIII's death, see chapter 12.3. Kleopatra (III), the wife, the Theoi Euergetai (II)… The priest being in Alexandria of Alexander, and of the Theoi Soteres, and of the Theoi Adelphoi, and of the Theoi Euergetai, and of the Theoi Philopatores, and of the Theoi Epiphaneis, and of the Theos Philometor, and of the Theos Eupator, and of the Theoi Euergetai; the athlophoros of Berenike Euergetis; the kanephoros of Arsinoë Philadelphos; and the hiereia of Arsinoë Philopator Example: P.Grenf. 2.15 8
57. Dating protocol, c. 113 BCE, reign of Kleopatra III and Ptolemy IX: βασιλευόντων Κλεοπάτρας καὶ Πτολεμαίου θεῶν Φιλομητόρων Σωτήρων…ίερεὺς τοῦ ὄντος ἐν Ἀλεξανδρείαι Ἀλεξάνδρου και θεῶν Σωτήρων και θεῶν Ἀδελφῶν και θεῶν Εὺεργετών και θεῶν Φιλοπατόρῶν και θεῶν Επιφανῶν και θεοῦ Εὺπάτορος και θεοῦ Φιλομήτορος και θεοῦ Φιλοπάτορος Νέου και θεῶν Εὺεργετών (θεοῦ Εὐεργέτου) και θεῶν Φιλομητόρων Σωτήρων; ἱερέως διὰ βίου βασιλίσσης Κλεοπάτρας, θεᾶς Αφροδίτης και Φιλομήτορος; ἱεροῦ πώλου Ἴσιδος μητρὸς θεῶν μεγάλης; στεφανηφόρου βασιλίσσης Κλεοπάτρας θεᾶς Φιλομήτορος Σωτείρας Δικαιοσύνης Νικηφόρου; ἀθλοφόρου Βερενίκης Εὐε̣ ργέ̣ τιδος; φωσφόρου βασιλίσσης̣ Κλε̣ οπάτρας θεᾶς Φιλομήτορος Σωτείρας Δικαιοσύν̣ ης Νικηφόρου; κανηφόρου Ἀρσινόης Φιλαδέλφου; ἱερείας βασιλίσσης Κλεοπάτρας θεᾶς Φιλομήτορος Σωτείρας Δικαιοσύνης Νικηφόρου; ἱερείας Ἀρσινόης Φι̣ λ̣ ο̣ π̣ ά̣ τορος During the rule of Kleopatra (III) and of Ptolemy (IX) the Theoi Philometores Soteres …The priest being in Alexandria of Alexander, and of the Theoi Soteres, and of the Theoi Adelphoi, and of the Theoi Euergetai, and of the Theoi Philopatores, and of the Theoi Epiphaneis, and of the Theos Eupator, and of the Theos Philometor, and of the Theos Neos Philopator, and of the Theoi Euergetai (or Theos Euergetes), and of the Theoi Philometores Soteres; the priest during the lifetime of the queen Kleopatra, Thea Aphrodite and Philometor; the hieropolos of Isis, the great one, mother of the gods; the stephanephoros of queen Kleopatra Thea Philometor Soteira Dikaiosyne Nikephoros; the athlophoros of Berenike Euergetis; the phosphoros of queen Kleopatra Thea Philometor Soteira Dikaiosyne Nikephoros; the kanephoros of Arsinoë Philadelphos; the hiereia of queen Kleopatra Thea Philometor Soteira Dikaiosyne Nikephoros; and the hiereia of Arsinoë Philopator Example: P.Dion. 21
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