Often inspiring strong emotions—both those of love and hate—Brutalist architecture remains one of the most divisive architectural styles of the modern age. “The style is characterized by raw, exposed concrete and bold geometric forms,” Mark Bittoni, principal of Bittoni Architects says. “You’ve certainly seen it before in many cultural and civic buildings built between the 1950s and ’70s.” With countless examples spanning countries and continents, the look has both historical significance and remains popular—particularly in residential design—today. In this guide from AD, discover the history and impact of Brutalism, study the controversial reactions to the look, and visit famous Brutalist buildings around the world.

What Is Brutalist Architecture?

Brutalist architecture is a style of building design developed in the 1950s in the United Kingdom following World War II. With an emphasis on construction and raw materials, the aesthetic evolved as reconstruction efforts were underway in the post-war era. “If modernism is about architecture being honest, Brutalist design is about architecture being brutally honest,” Geddes Ulinskas, principal of Geddes Ulinskas Architects, adds. “Forms are as simple as can be and materials are stripped to be as bare and raw as possible.”

The term Brutalism is often attributed as emerging from the French word ‘beton brut,’ meaning raw concrete. Many credit Swedish architect Hans Asplund for coining the term when describing Villa Göth, a brick residential building, in 1949. However, the name was popularized by British architectural critic Reyner Banham who wrote an essay in 1955 for Architectural Review called “The New Brutalism,” in which he attempted to classify and define the emerging style. Later in 1969, he’d publish a book titled New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?. “Over time, the term Brutalism became associated with the movement as a whole,” Bittoni says. British architects Alison and Peter Smithson can also be credited with the widespread use of the name. “During the 1950s, they began to use the term to describe their approach to modernism which rejected nostalgia for earlier architectural styles and tendencies to embellish structure.”

History of Brutalist Architecture

Brutalism emerged following the end of World War II, originally spanning from the United Kingdom and Europe before spreading to other parts of the world. At the time, there were multiple overlapping events and philosophies that contributed to the emergence of Brutalist structures. Spinning off the heels of the modernist movement of the day, architects were presented with a new set of challenges, namely limited resources, when designing in the post-war era. Additionally, young architects in particular felt that modernism represented little more than an aesthetic language, and sought to create structures rooted in functionalism and monumental expression. “It emerged as a rejection of decorative and ornamental architecture, instead focusing on simplicity and showcasing the honest expression of materials,” Bittoni says.

Le Corbusier’s working class housing complex, Cité Radieuse, which was part of the architect’s social housing habitat Unité d’Habitation, is often referred to as the catalyst for the style. A self-contained concrete structure, the 18-story building is often credited as sparking the inspiration behind Brutalist philosophy. “After a group of British architects established the Brutalist style, it was reinforced by an architectural writer, Reyner Benham who connected the movement with the aesthetic of raw concrete,” Ulinskas explains. “Brutalist buildings were thought of as elemental, or raw art.”

“The philosophy behind Brutalist architecture is rooted in the belief that architectural design should prioritize functionality, honesty, and social purpose,” Bittoni explains. The style is often associated with socialist utopian ideas, which were regularly promoted by the buildings’ architects. Many early Brutalist buildings were affordable housing projects that sought to reimagine architecture to address modern needs. “The style often seeks to showcase the raw beauty of materials, such as concrete, while emphasizing structural elements,” he adds. “The perceived ‘darkness’ or ‘coldness’ of Brutalist buildings is often a result of the honest expression of materials and a deliberate rejection of decorative elements, reflecting the design's focus on functionality and the socio-political context of its time.”

While Brutalism was highly popular for a few decades, over time, public opinion began to shift. “Some people found the style too austere and imposing,” Bittoni says. This, in addition to a changing economic and political environment, aided in its decline in popularity.

However, this doesn’t mean Brutalism disappeared entirely. The style is still referenced today, particularly in residential design, and remains a strong inspiration for product design as well, such as in Kim Kardashian’s bathroom accessories line. “While the popularity of Brutalism has faded in mainstream architecture, there is still a significant following and appreciation for the style,” Bittoni assures. “Many architects continue to reference the purity of form, honest expression of materials, and strong geometric language found in Brutalism in their contemporary works.”

Defining Elements and Characteristics of Brutalist Architecture

To better understand Brutalism, it’s important to learn the design elements that define the style. Though not exhaustive, consider the following.

“Raw concrete or masonry, a limited palette of materials, and the use of enduring construction elements such as stone or concrete are the hallmarks of Brutalist architecture,” explains Ulinskas. “Lighting is often hidden and indirect, coming from concealed sources.” If aiming to identify a Brutalist building, look for the following elements:

• Large geometric forms, often in unusual shapes
• Simple, clean lines
• Rough and raw surfaces
• Exposed concrete and other construction materials
• Monochromatic palettes
• Modular elements

Famous Examples of Brutalist Architecture and Architects

The first project from Corbusier’s Unité d'Habitation is easily one of the most influential buildings to the Brutalist movement. Located in Marseille, the high-rise structure was designed to house the masses who had been displaced by the war. Inside, the building holds 337 apartments and also includes two internal shopping streets and a hotel.

Designed by architectural firm Kallmann Mckinnell & Knowles, the Boston City Hall was completed in 1968. Since its inception, the structure has received vastly mixed feedback, sometimes called the world’s ugliest building while simultaneously representing an important example of the Brutalist style. The design was crafted to represent the building’s internal function on the exterior through its rugged concrete volumes.

Part of UC San Diego, Geisel Library is both the most recognizable structure on the campus and one of the most frequently celebrated Brutalist buildings. Sometimes referred to as having a “lantern” design, the building is often commended for its blending or Brutalism and futurism.

Aside from Le Corbusier, Marcel Breuer is among the most recognizable Brutalist architects, and the Armstrong Rubber Company represents some of his best work. Located in New Haven, Connecticut, the building was turned into a boutique hotel, which opened in 2022.

Located in Montreal, Habitat 67, an apartment complex by Moshe Safdie, originated as the Israeli Canadian architect’s master’s thesis during his time studying at McGill University. Comprising 354 identical concrete cubes arranged in various combinations, each apartment features at least one private terrace. The housing project sought to combine the benefits of standalone houses—such as gardens and multilevel properties—with the density of a traditional apartment building.

Commonly referred to as simply the National Theatre, the Brutalist icon in London is one of the city’s most recognizable publicly funded performing arts venues. The imposing nature of reinforced concrete on both the interior and exterior have received mixed opinion. One of the most notable critics of the building, King Charles III—who has never been a fan of modern architecture—famously described the building in 1988 as “a clever way of building a nuclear power station in the middle of London without anyone objecting.”

When it comes to Brutalist design, Alison and Peter Smithson were among the style’s earliest adopters and prominent leaders in British Brutalism. Another social housing project, Robin Hood Gardens remains among the pair’s most notable buildings. Built in 1972, the structure was constructed with precast concrete panels. The architects believed that networks of walkways were the most important element of a building, not the building itself. Robin Hood Gardens, featuring “pathways in the sky,” was the pair’s first large-scale attempt of this philosophy. As of 2017, the building is currently being demolished.