Past failures of T cell-based vaccines for chronic viral infection may reflect suboptimal induction of quality T cell responses. Here, the authors highlight the need to integrate diverse functional attributes of T cell efficacy with the temporal and contextual demands of different viral infections. They provide mechanistic insights into the induction of CD8⁺ T cell quality to inform rational vaccine design for emerging viruses and chronic diseases such as HIV-1.

Cytokine-armoured CAR T cells represent a new generation of programmable cell therapies designed to enhance efficacy while limiting toxicity. This Review explores how cytokine armouring and advances in synthetic receptor design and conditional gene circuits are reshaping immunotherapy for solid tumours.

Many clinically relevant pathogens enter the body through mucosal surfaces, yet conventional parenteral immunization is insufficient to elicit robust mucosal immunity. This Review examines the unique anatomical and immunological features of the mucosal surfaces of the body and how this knowledge can be used to develop protective mucosal vaccines.

Ageing of the immune system is now realized to drive systemic ageing, and there is interest in targeting immune ageing in order to promote healthy ageing. Here, the authors detail how ageing affects different immune cell populations and discuss strategies to rejuvenate the immune system in order to extend healthspan.