In Revelation 2:9 and 3:9, John refers to the “synagogue of Satan” — people who claim to be Jews but are not.
Some interpreters read this literally (as false converts or hostile groups), while others see it symbolically. My question is:
Yes, such groups definitely existed, but there's no clear textual evidence that John’s “synagogue of Satan” imagery in Revelation was influenced by or related directly to them—it seem more likely that the author was refering to local Jewish opposition to early Christians (Matthew 10:17, 23:34; Luke 21:12; John 16:2; Acts 9:1–2, 22:19, 26:11; Galatains 4:29).
In Rev. 2:9 and 3:9, John refers to those who claim to be Jews but are not, calling them a “synagogue of Satan.” This theme of false identity appears throughout his writings. In 1 John, those who reject Christ or hate fellow believers are called liars and “children of the devil” (1 John 2:4; 3:10). For John, true covenant identity is defined by faith in Christ, not outward affiliation. He likely isn’t denying their ethnicity, but redefining true Jewishness in spiritual terms—echoing Paul (Rom. 2:28–29) and Jesus (John 8:39): “You claim to be Jews (biologically), but you are not (spiritually).”
He likely wasn’t referring to secret societies or cults, though groups like the Eleusinian, Orphic, Dionysian, Mithraic, Isis, Hermetic and others were definitely active in the Greco-Roman world. But there’s no clear indication that Revelation is addressing them here. The reference to a “synagogue” more likely points to certain Jewish groups in Smyrna and Philadelphia who opposed early Christians, not to pagan or Satanic cults.
Matthew 23:34 — Therefore, behold, I am sending you prophets and wise men and scribes; some of them you will kill and crucify, and some of them you will scourge in your synagogues, and persecute from city to city, (NASB)
John 8:39, 44-45 — They (the Jews, v. 31) answered him, “Abraham is our father. ” Jesus said to them, “If you were Abraham’s children, you would be doing the works Abraham did, You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father’s desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and does not stand in the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks out of his own character, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. (ESV)
Acts 26:11 — And as I punished them often in all the synagogues, I tried to force them to blaspheme; and being furiously enraged at them, I kept pursuing them even to foreign cities.
Romans 2:28-29 — For he is not a Jew who is one outwardly, nor is circumcision that which is outward in the flesh. But he is a Jew who is one inwardly; and circumcision is that which is of the heart, by the Spirit, not by the letter; and his praise is not from men, but from God. (NASB)
1 Peter 2:8-9 — And, “He is the stone that makes people stumble, the rock that makes them fall.” They stumble because they do not obey God’s word, and so they meet the fate that was planned for them (Ethnic Israel). But you (Spiritual Israel) are not like that, for you are a chosen people. You are royal priests, a holy nation, God’s very own possession. As a result, you can show others the goodness of God, for he called you out of the darkness into his wonderful light. (NLT)
1 John 2:4, 3:10 — The one who says, "I have come to know Him," and does not keep His commandments, is a liar, and the truth is not in him; By this the children of God and the children of the devil are obvious: anyone who does not practice righteousness is not of God, nor the one who does not love his brother. (NASB)
Revelation 2:9, 3:9 — I know your tribulation and your poverty (but you are rich), and the blasphemy by those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. Behold, I will cause those of the synagogue of Satan, who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie I will make them come and bow down at your feet, and make them know that I have loved you. (NASB)
My view—grounded in Pauline teachings, Jesus’ warnings about synagogue persecution, and the wider Johannine context—is that this refers to specific Jewish groups opposing early Christians in Smyrna and Philadelphia. However, alternative interpretations also exist, with some seeing the imagery as symbolic or broadly representing opposition to the gospel, which is a plausible reading.
It’s important to recognize that these passages (e.g., synagogue of Satan; Matthew 27:25) address specific historical contexts and should not be taken as a blanket condemnation of all Jews. Sadly, some have misused texts like these to justify antisemitism—something the New Testament does not support (Romans 11:1; 1 John 4:20).
Did secret societies exist when John wrote Revelation, and could they relate to the "synagogue of Satan"?
Much will depend on how one defines what a secret society is? And whether or not one can conclude that secret societies could include mystery cults such as the Greco-Roman mysteries.
At the time John wrote Revelation (late 1st century), were there any secret societies, cults, or hidden religious groups in the Greco-Roman world that might have influenced this imagery?
I highly doubt that any serious theological works have taken this subject matter up, as your question postulates.
The term Synagogue of Satan has various New Testament and related theological uses. In the letters to the early Christian churches of Smyrna and Philadelphia in Revelation 2:9 and 3:9, Jesus makes reference to a "synagogue of Satan", in each case referring to a group persecuting the church "who say they are Jews and are not".
The verse has often been used to justify antisemitism. Evangelical scholars broadly disagree with these interpretations, based on the fact that the suspected author of Revelation was likely Jewish:
And to the angel of the church in Smyrna write: These are the words of the first and the last, who was dead and came to life: I know your affliction and your poverty, even though you are rich. I know the slander on the part of those who say that they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. — Revelation 2:8–9
And to the angel of the church in Philadelphia write... "I know your works. Look, I have set before you an open door, which no one is able to shut. I know that you have but little power, and yet you have kept my word and have not denied my name. I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but are lying—I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and they will learn that I have loved you." — Revelation 3:7–9
To my knowledge, no academics have associated the Synagogue of Satan with any secrets societies that may have existed in Apostolic Times. Even as such the term secret society has to be defined.
The mystery schools of Greco-Roman antiquity include the Eleusinian Mysteries, the Dionysian Mysteries, and the Orphic Mysteries. Some of the many divinities that the Romans nominally adopted from other cultures also came to be worshipped in Mysteries; for instance, Egyptian Isis, Persian Mithras from the Mithraic Mysteries, Thracian/Phrygian Sabazius, and Phrygian Cybele. In modern thinking these are not true secret societies, yet have some secret initiatives and some forms of occultism such as occult teachings and understandings.
"By a secret society was formerly meant a society which was known to exist, but whose members and places of meetings were not publicly known. Today, we understand by a secret society, a society with secrets, having a ritual demanding an oath of allegiance and secrecy, prescribing ceremonies of a religious character, such as the use of the Bible, either by extracts therefrom, or by its being placed an altar within a lodge-room, by the use of prayers, of hymns, of religious signs and symbols, special funeral services, etc." (Rosen, "The Catholic Church and Secret Societies," p. 2). Raich gives a more elaborate description: "Secret societies are those organizations which completely conceal their rules, corporate activity, the names of their members, their signs, passwords and usages from outsiders or the 'profane.' As a rule, the members of these societies are bound to the strictest secrecy concerning all the business of the association by oath or promise or word of honour, and often under the threat of severe punishment in case of its violation. If such secret society has higher and lower degrees, the members of the higher degree must be equally careful to conceal their secrets from their brethren of a lower degree. In certain secret societies, the members are not allowed to know even the names of their highest officers. Secret societies were founded to promote certain ideal aims, to be obtained not by violent but by moral measures. By this, they are distinguished from conspiracies and secret plots which are formed to attain a particular object through violent means. Secret societies may be religious, scientific, political or social" (Kirchenlex., V, p. 519). Narrowing the definition still more to the technical meaning of secret societies (societates clandestinae) in ecclesiastical documents, Archbishop Katzer in a Pastoral (20 Jan., 1895) says: "The Catholic Church has declared that she considers those societies illicit and forbidden which (1) unite their members for the purpose of conspiring against the State or Church; (2) demand the observance of secrecy to such an extent that it must be maintained even before the rightful ecclesiastical authority; (3) exact an oath from their members or a promise of blind and absolute obedience; (4) make use of a ritual and ceremonies that constitute them sects."
Origin
Though secret societies, in the modern and technical sense, did not exist in antiquity, yet there were various organizations which boasted an esoteric doctrine known only to their members, and carefully concealed from the profane. Some date societies of this kind back to Pythagoras (582-507 B.C.). The Eleusinian Mysteries, the secret teachings of Egyptian and Druid hierarchies, the esoteric doctrines of the Magian and Mithraic worshippers furnished material for such secret organizations. In Christian times, such heresies as the Gnostic and Manichaean also claimed to possess a knowledge known only to the illuminated and not to be shared with the vulgar. Likewise, the enemies of the religious order of Knights Templars maintained that the brothers of the Temple, while externally professing Christianity, were in reality pagans who veiled their impiety under orthodox terms to which an entirely different meaning was given by the initiated. Originally, the various guilds of the Middle Ages were in no sense secret societies in the modern acceptation of the term, though some have supposed that symbolic Freemasonry was gradually developed in those organizations. The fantastic Rosicrucians are credited with something of the nature of a modern secret society, but the association, if such it was, can scarcely be said to have emerged into the clear light of history. - Secret Societies
There were groups that were adhering to beliefs that were contrary to scripture, though claiming otherwise. Apostle Paul had mentioned there were those that were "twisting...the scriptures...to their own destruction" (2 Peter 3:16), men that were trying to separate those within the early congregation by spreading misinformation (2 Timothy 2:17-18), as well as the existing sect of the Sadducees (who didn't believe in the resurrection or even spirits) which were still around since even before Jesus died. (Acts 5:17; 23:8) John writes about the sect of Nicolaus, which was making enough headway for Christ to comment on his hatred of it. (Revelation 2:6)
These could be counted as part of the "synagogue of Satan", since they rejected the Christ as well as the truths he taught. In addition, anyone that rejected the Christ (as well as those that do so now) are counted among those that are known as the "antichrist". (1 John 2:22-23)
(New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures; JW.org)
